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Around the world, people become adults in different ways. In some places, it's when you get a job, get married, or move out of your parents' house. In others it might include an initiation ritual, or taking leadership in your family or community.

These milestones may differ, but they all point to the same question: what does it mean to "become an adult"? Understanding this matters—not only for psychologists who study human development and behavior, but also for society, because adulthood is more than just getting older. It shapes our motivations and identity, how we relate to others, and our mental health and well-being.

Local views on adulthood set the stage for how young people learn to take responsibility and find their place in the world.

We are cross-cultural personality and developmental psychology researchers who , identity development, personality, and mental health. We were interested in what the transition to adulthood looks like in sub-Saharan Africa—specifically, among the Ovawambo people of Namibia. One of us (Selma Uugwanga) is Omuwambo, offering an important insider perspective.

We 50 young Ovawambo adults, aged 18 to 25, living in both rural and urban areas of Namibia. We wanted to understand how they defined adulthood: what signals its beginning? What responsibilities and challenges come with it?

Our goal was to center African perspectives, which are underrepresented in global psychology, and to understand how traditional values and modern realities shape the experience of growing up.

We identified five key themes, relating to gender roles, birth order, becoming a parent, community responsibility, and psychological maturity. A common thread was how participants connected personal aims and achievements with the capacity and duty to help others. An adult is someone who can care for both themself and for others.

Our findings are a reminder that there is no single pathway to adulthood. Recognizing cultural differences is essential if we want to build a truly inclusive understanding of human development across the globe.

Why Namibia and the Ovawambo?

, a country in the south-western part of Africa with a population of about , is home to many ethnic groups. Nearly half of the population are . Traditionally, Ovawambo communities included formal rites of passage to adulthood, such as ceremonies and new roles in the household or community. For example, the Olufuko ceremony prepared girls around age 14 for womanhood, allowing them to become sexually active, have children and marry. These practices changed during colonialism and later with the rise of Christianity.

Today, things are shifting even more with globalization. Many young Namibians now stay in school longer, with rising from just 3% in the 1990s to nearly 29% in 2022. Young people also often wait longer to marry or have children. Yet, unlike their peers in many western countries, daily life is still strongly shaped by family obligations and community ties. For example, one young participant explained that he supported his grandmother and took on responsibilities for other relatives because his parents had limited resources.

Since Namibia's independence in 1990, has surged. The country's urban population has risen from about 28% in 1990 to approximately 54% by 2025. Young people are often navigating between rural traditions and urban change.

While our focus was on Ovawambo youth, this group shares many cultural and social dynamics with other young people in sub-Saharan Africa, and we believe the patterns we observe here may reflect broader regional trends.

Perceptions of adulthood

We collected in-depth interviews, then generated overarching themes from close attention to meaning in participants' stories.

We spoke with 50 young adults—half of them women—equally split between urban and rural areas in Windhoek and northern Namibia. ranged in age from 18 to 25 years; most had finished secondary school and were enrolled in higher education, with only a few in steady jobs. Almost half lived with parents, and others with siblings, cousins, or extended relatives, showing how family households remain central at this stage of life.

We asked open-ended questions like:

• Do you feel like you're an adult?
• What are the most important signs of adulthood?
• Is adulthood different for men and women?
• Do your parents consider you as an adult?

These conversations gave us deep insights into how young Namibians view themselves and their roles in society.

From the interviews, we identified five key themes:

1. Gender shapes the path to adulthood

Almost all participants said adulthood looks different for men and women. Ovawambo women are often seen as becoming adults earlier in their teenage years than men, because they take on caregiving roles like cooking and caring for siblings. Men are expected to be independent and financially responsible earlier, but often face more pressure. Both currently contend with high youth unemployment and carry different but significant burdens.

2. Birth order matters

Your position in the family shapes your adult responsibilities. Firstborns, especially in large families, are often expected to help care for siblings or even support the household. This can lead to earlier maturity. By contrast, youngest children are often protected longer, even if they are legally adults.

3. Parenthood signals change, but not always adulthood

Having a child, especially for women, is often a major turning point. Yet, because parenting is commonly supported by extended family, being a parent doesn't automatically mean being seen as an adult. Maturity and independence remain essential markers.

4. Family and community responsibility is central

Adulthood in Namibia does not primarily center on personal independence, but instead on caring for the wider community. An adult is someone who can support family members, neighbors, and others in need—emotionally, financially and socially.

5. Maturity means more than age

Participants emphasized that true adulthood is about behavior and mindset—thinking carefully, learning from mistakes, showing resilience, and knowing when to seek advice from elders.

Difference in emphasis

Most psychological research on young adulthood focuses on the US and Europe, where this life stage is often framed as a time of freedom, self-focus and exploration. But our study shows a different picture: in Namibia, young adults are embedded in strong social networks and often assume serious responsibilities early in life, with their independence serving as a key resource for doing so.

Despite facing challenges like and limited resources, many participants expressed pride in their ability to care for others. They saw responsibility as a source of meaning.

Some findings mirror patterns seen in other contexts. For example, in or among , researchers have also found that adulthood is closely linked to family responsibility.

What seems more distinct in Namibia is the emphasis on "agentic communalism": the idea that personal agency (making your own decisions) and communal values (helping others) are not in conflict. Instead, they are interwoven. Being an adult means both acting independently and contributing to others' well-being.

Becoming an adult in Namibia isn't just about age or personal milestones. It's about growing into a role that combines independence with care for others. It means taking responsibility—not only for yourself, but for your family and community—and earning respect through your actions.

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