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The issue of citizens' defense willingness has gained renewed urgency in the wake of Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. For small and medium-sized states, which rely on whole-of-society defense efforts, such willingness is a prerequisite for a functioning total defense. A new study in the journal European Security provides a more nuanced picture of what lies behind this willingness to defend the nation.

The study, based on an online survey of a politically representative sample of 2,022 Swedish citizens and 1,953 Danish citizens, shows that the relationship between national identity and defense willingness is more complex than earlier research has suggested.

"Previous studies have usually looked at general national pride as a single factor, but our research shows that national identity is multidimensional. Different aspects of national identity can pull in different directions when it comes to defense willingness," says Ralph Sundberg, Senior Lecturer in War Studies at the Swedish Defense University, who conducted the study together with Gina Gustavsson, Associate Professor of Political Science at Uppsala University.

Believing Sweden is better than other countries

The results indicate that factors such as national attachment, cultural pride (for example, pride in Swedish literature), national chauvinism—i.e. believing Sweden is better than most other countries—and a cultural or civic understanding of what it means to be Swedish all have a positive effect on defense willingness.

"This is not only about a vague feeling of pride, but also about more concrete experiences of belonging, cultural values and views of what it means to be part of the nation," says Sundberg.

He also points out that the study included Swedes with an immigrant background. "We do not look specifically at this group in this study, but in a follow-up study we have found that people with immigrant backgrounds sometimes show higher defense willingness than native-born Swedes."

Relationships not straightforward

The study also shows that the relationships are not straightforward. An ethnic understanding of nationhood—the idea that ancestry determines whether someone is considered a "real" Swede—has no significant effect on defense willingness. Even more surprisingly, uncritical patriotism has a negative effect.

"Our findings show that individuals with a 'my country, right or wrong' attitude actually have lower levels of defense willingness than others. This challenges the traditional view that strong nationalism always strengthens the willingness to defend the country," says Sundberg.

This means that defense willingness does not arise solely from loyalty to the state or its symbols, but rather from a combination of emotional attachment, cultural pride and a sense of community.

High defense willingness in Sweden

That the study was conducted in Sweden makes the results particularly interesting. Unlike neighboring Finland, Norway and Denmark, Sweden has not experienced war or occupation in modern times. Yet defense willingness is higher in Sweden than in many other European countries.

"This makes Sweden a unique case. Our research shows that a historical experience of war is not necessary for defense willingness to be strong. Instead, pride in the country's democracy, culture and history can play a decisive role," says Sundberg.

At a time when Sweden faces major changes in its security and defense policy, the results provide an important piece of the puzzle for understanding defense willingness as a phenomenon.

New insights for research

The study contributes not only to research on defense willingness, but also to the broader scholarly debate on nationalism and national identity—a debate recently highlighted in Sweden through the introduction of a cultural canon.

"A key conclusion is that we must view national identity as multifaceted. It consists of several dimensions that affect defense willingness in different ways, sometimes in opposite directions. This is an important reminder that identity is more complex than simply pride in the nation," says Gustavsson.

The findings show that cultural and civic nationalism can be just as important as traditional military pride in motivating Swedes to defend their country—whereas ethnic nationalism does not have this effect.

Community and identity

The study highlights the importance of continuing to explore how different dimensions of national identity interact with defense willingness. For policymakers and defense planners, the results are particularly relevant.

"If we want to understand defense willingness, we must understand the feelings and values that people associate with their nation. It is not only about military capability or threats, but also about how people perceive their community and identity," says Sundberg.

By broadening our understanding of these relationships, we can build a more nuanced picture of why people are prepared to defend their country—and thereby strengthen the capacity to build a robust total defense.